Subnetting

 

Question: How many networks and valid hosts for the given IP 192.168.10.0/25

Given IP :11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000

Subnet   :11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000

-----------------------------------------------------------

Network ID

NID : 192.168.10.0

Broadcast ID

BID : 192.168.10.127

Valid Host ID

VHID : 192.168.10.1 to 192.168.10.126

To Find the Number of Bits in 

Network ID :24

Subnet ID :1

Host ID :7

Number of Networks = 2^n where n no of network bits

                               =2^1

                               =2

Number of Valid Hosts = 2^h - 2 where h no of host bits

                                 =2^7 - 2

                                 =128 - 2

                                 =126

N/w NO	NETWORK ID	HOST ADDRESS	BROADCAST ID
1	192.168.10.0	192.168.10.1 - 192.168.10.126	192.168.10.127
2	192.168.10.128	192.168.10.129 - 192.168.10.254	192.168.10.255

Experimental set up of subnetting using Cisco Packet Racer:

Question: How many networks and valid hosts for the given IP 172.16.0.0/19

Given IP :10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000

Subnet   :11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000

-----------------------------------------------------------

Network ID

NID : 172.16.0.0

Broadcast ID

BID : 172.16.31.255

Valid Host ID

VHID : 172.16.0.1 to 172.16.31.254

To Find the Number of Bits in 

Network ID :16

Subnet ID :3

Host ID :13

Number of Networks = 2^n

                               =2^3

                               =8

Number of Valid Hosts = 2^h - 2

                                 =2^13 - 2

                                 =8192 - 2

                                 =8190

N/w NO	NETWORK ID	HOST ADDRESS	BROADCAST ID
1	172.16.0.0	172.16.0.0 - 172.16.31.254	172.16.31.255
2	172.16.32.0	172.16.32.1 - 172.16.63.254	172.16.63.255
3	172.16.64.0	172.16.64.1 - 172.16.95.254	172.16.95.255
4	172.16.96.0	172.16.96.1 – 172.16.127.254	172.16.127.255
5	172.16.128.0	172.16.128.1 – 172.16.159.254	172.16.159.255
6	172.16.160.0	172.16.160.1 – 172.16.191.254	172.16.191.255
7	172.16.192.0	172.16.192.1 – 172.16.223.254	172.16.223.255
8	172.16.224.0	172.16.224.1 – 172.16.255.254	172.16.255.255

Practice Questions

Question #1

What is the range of assignable IP addresses for a subnet containing an IP

address of 172.16.1.10 /19?

a. 172.16.0.1 – 172.16.31.254

b. 172.16.0.1 – 172.16.63.254

c. 172.16.0.0 – 172.16.31.255

d. 172.16.0.1 – 172.16.31.255

e. 172.16.0.0 – 172.16.63.254

Answer: a

To determine the subnets, assignable IP address ranges, and directed broadcast

addresses created by the 19-bit subnet mask we perform the following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask).In this question, we have a 19-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as:

11111111 11111111 11100000 00000000

The interesting octet is the third octet, because the third octet (i.e. 11100000) is the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary.

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask.

A 19-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as: 255.255.224.0 Since the third octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting octet is 224.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the interesting octet from 256. Block Size = 256 – 224 = 32

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting octet, starting at 0. Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as: 172.16.0.0 /19

We then count by the block size (of 32) in the interesting octet (the third octet in

this question) to determine the remaining subnets:

172.16.32.0 /19

172.16.64.0 /19

172.16.96.0 /19

172.16.128.0 /19

172.16.160.0 /19

172.16.192.0 /19

172.16.224.0 /19

Step #5: Identify the subnet address, the directed broadcast address, and the

usable range of addresses. Looking through the subnets created by the 19-bit subnet mask reveals that the IP address of 172.16.1.10 resides in the 172.16.0.0 /19 subnet. The directed broadcast address, where all host bits are set to a 1, is 1 less than the next subnet address. The next subnet address is 172.16.32.0. So, the directed broadcast address for the 172.16.0.0 /19 subnet is 1 less than 172.16.32.0, which is:172.16.31.255 The usable IP addresses are all the IP addresses between the subnet address and the directed broadcast address. Therefore, in this example, the assignable IP address range for the 172.16.0.0 /19 network is: 172.16.0.1 – 172.16.31.254

Question #2

You are assigning IP addresses to hosts in the 192.168.4.0 /26 subnet. Which two of the following IP addresses are assignable IP addresses that reside in that subnet?

a. 192.168.4.0

b. 192.168.4.63

c. 192.168.4.62

d. 192.168.4.32

e. 192.168.4.64

Answer: c and d

To determine subnets and usable address ranges created by the 26-bit subnet

mask we perform the following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask).In this question, we have a 26-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as:

11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000

The interesting octet is the forth octet, because the forth octet (i.e. 11000000) is

the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary.

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask.

A 26-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as:

255.255.255.192

Since the forth octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting

octet is 192.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the

interesting octet from 256.

Block Size = 256 – 192 = 64

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting

octet, starting at 0.

Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as:

192.168.4.0 /26

We then count by the block size (of 64) in the interesting octet (the forth octet in

this question) to determine the remaining subnets:

192.168.4.64 /26

192.168.4.128 /26

192.168.4.192 /26

Step #5:

This question is asking about the 192.168.4.0 /26 subnet. From the above list of

subnets, we can determine that the assignable range of IP addresses for this subnet is 192.168.4.1 – 192.168.4.62. We can also determine that 192.168.4.0 is the network address, and 192.168.4.63 is the directed broadcast address. From the assignable range of IP addresses we have calculated, we can determine that the two assignable IP addresses given as options in this question are: 192.168.4.62 and 192.168.4.32.

Question #3

A host in your network has been assigned an IP address of 192.168.181.182 /25.

What is the subnet to which the host belongs?

a. 192.168.181.128 /25

b. 192.168.181.0 /25

c. 192.168.181.176 /25

d. 192.168.181.192 /25

e. 192.168.181.160 /25

Answer: a

To determine subnets and usable address ranges created by the 25-bit subnet

mask we perform the following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask). In this question, we have a 25-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as: 11111111 11111111 11111111 10000000

The interesting octet is the forth octet, because the forth octet (i.e. 10000000) is the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary.

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask. A 25-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as:

255.255.255.128 Since the forth octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting octet is 128.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the

interesting octet from 256. Block Size = 256 – 128 = 128

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting octet, starting at 0. Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as:192.168.181.0 /25 We then count by the block size (of 128) in the interesting octet (the forth octet in this question) to determine the remaining subnets, or in this case just a single additional subnet. 192.168.181.128 /25 Now that we have our two subnets identified, we can determine the subnet in which the IP address of 192.168.181.182 resides. Since the usable range of IP addresses for the 192.168.181.128 /25 network is 192.168.181.129 – 192.168.181.254 (because 192.168.181.128 is the network address, and 192.168.181.255 is the directed broadcast address), and since 192.168.181.182 is in that range, the subnet to which 192.168.181.182 /25 belongs is: 192.168.181.128 /25

Question #4

You are working with a Class B network with the private IP address of 172.16.0.0 /16. You need to maximize the number of broadcast domains, where each broadcast domain can accommodate 1000 hosts. What subnet mask should you use?

a. /22

b. /23

c. /24

d. /25

e. /26

Answer: a

In addition to testing your knowledge of subnetting, this question is also making sure you understand that a subnet is a broadcast domain. This should not be confused with a collision domain (i.e. each port on a switch is in its own collision domain). To determine how many host bits are required to support 1000 hosts, we can create a table from the following formula:

Number of Hosts = 2h – 2, where h is the number of host bits

From this formula, we can create the following table:

1 Host Bit => 0 Hosts

2 Host Bits => 2 Hosts

3 Host Bits => 6 Hosts

4 Host Bits => 14 Hosts

5 Host Bits => 30 Hosts

6 Host Bits => 62 Hosts

7 Host Bits => 126 Hosts

8 Host Bits => 254 Hosts

9 Host Bits => 510 Hosts

10 Host Bits => 1022 Hosts

This table tells us that a subnet with 10 host bits will accommodate the requirement of 1000 hosts. If we have 10 host bits, then we have a 22-bit subnet mask (i.e. 32 – 10 = 22). Also, by not using more host bits than we need, we are maximizing the number of subnets that can be created.

Question #5

What is the directed broadcast address of a subnet containing an IP address of

172.16.1.10 /19?

a. 172.16.15.255

b. 172.16.31.255

c. 172.16.255.255

d. 172.16.95.255

e. 172.16.0.255

Answer: b

To determine the subnets, assignable IP address ranges, and directed broadcast addresses created by the 19-bit subnet mask we perform the following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask). In this question, we have a 19-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as:

11111111 11111111 11100000 00000000 The interesting octet is the third octet, because the third octet (i.e. 11100000) is the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary. 

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask.

A 19-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as: 255.255.224.0

Since the third octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting

octet is 224.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the

interesting octet from 256.

Block Size = 256 – 224 = 32

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting

octet, starting at 0. Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as:172.16.0.0 /19 We then count by the block size (of 32) in the interesting octet (the third octet in this question) to determine the remaining subnets:

172.16.32.0 /19

172.16.64.0 /19

172.16.96.0 /19

172.16.128.0 /19

172.16.160.0 /19

172.16.192.0 /19

172.16.224.0 /19

Step #5: Identify the subnet address, the directed broadcast address, and the

usable range of addresses. Looking through the subnets created by the 19-bit subnet mask reveals that the IP address of 172.16.1.10 resides in the 172.16.0.0 /19 subnet. The directed broadcast address, where all host bits are set to a 1, is 1 less than the next subnet address.The next subnet address is 172.16.32.0. So, the directed broadcast address for the 172.16.0.0 /19 subnet is 1 less than 172.16.32.0, which is: 172.16.31.255

The usable IP addresses are all the IP addresses between the subnet address and the directed broadcast address. Therefore, in this example, the assignable IP address range for the 172.16.0.0 /19 network is:

172.16.0.1 – 172.16.31.254

Question #6

A customer is using a Class C network of 192.168.10.0 subnetted with a 28-bit

subnet mask. How many subnets can be created by using this subnet mask?

a. 32

b. 16

c. 30

d. 8

e. 14

Answer: b

The subnet in this question is a Class C network, because there is a 192 in the first octet. A class C network has a natural mask of 24 bits. However, this network has a 28-bit subnet mask. Therefore, we have 4 borrowed bits, which are network bits added to a network’s natural mask (i.e. 28 – 24 = 4).

The number of subnets can be calculated as follows:

Number of Subnets = 2s, where s is the number of borrowed bits.

Therefore, in this question, the number of created subnets is 16:

Number of Subnets = 2^4 = 16

Question #7

Given a subnet of 172.16.56.0 /21, identify which of the following IP addresses

belong to this subnet. (Select 2.)

a. 172.16.54.129

b. 172.16.62.255

c. 172.16.61.0

d. 172.16.65.255

e. 172.16.64.1

Answer: b, c

To determine subnets and usable address ranges created by the 21-bit subnet

mask we perform the following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask).In this question, we have a 21-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as:

11111111 11111111 11111000 00000000

The interesting octet is the third octet, because the third octet (i.e. 11111000) is

the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary subnet mask.

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask.

A 21-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as: 255.255.248.0

Since the third octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting

octet is 248.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the

interesting octet from 256.

Block Size = 256 – 248 = 8

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting

octet, starting at 0.Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as: 172.16.0.0 /21

We then count by the block size (of 8) in the interesting octet (the third octet in

this question) to determine the remaining subnets:

172.16.8.0 /21

172.16.16.0 /21

172.16.24.0 /21

172.16.32.0 /21

172.16.40.0 /21

172.16.48.0 /21

172.16.56.0 /21

172.16.64.0 /21

... SUBNETS OMITTED ...

We can stop counting after we pass the subnet we are being asked about.

Specifically, in this question, we’re being asked about 172.16.56.0 /21.

Step #5: Identify the subnet address, the directed broadcast address, and the

usable range of addresses.

The subnet address, where all host bits are set to a 0, is given:

172.16.56.0 /24

The directed broadcast address, where all host bits are set to a 1, is 1 less than

the next subnet address.

The next subnet address is 172.16.64.0. So, the directed broadcast address for

the 172.16.54.0 /21 subnet is 1 less than 172.16.64.0, which is:

172.16.63.255

The usable IP addresses are all the IP addresses between the subnet address

and the directed broadcast address. Therefore, in this example, the usable IP

address range for the 172.16.56.0 /21 network is:

172.16.56.1 – 172.16.63.254

The only IP addresses in this question that reside in this range are:

172.16.62.255

172.16.61.0

WARNING: Many CCNA R&S candidates look at IP addresses like these and

immediately assume they are not usable IP addresses, because they have a 0 or

a 255 in the forth octet. They argue that 172.16.61.0 is a subnet address and that

172.16.62.255 is a directed broadcast address.

While that would only be true of the subnet mask were 24-bits, remember that, by

definition, a subnet address has all of its host bits set to a 0, and a directed

broadcast address has all of its host bits set to a 1. In this question, we have 11

host bits (i.e. 32 – 21 = 11), not 8 host bits. So, 172.16.62.255 and 172.16.61.0

are actually usable IP addresses.

Question #8

What is the subnet address of the IP address 192.168.5.55 with a subnet mask

of 255.255.255.224?

a. 192.168.5.0 /27

b. 192.168.5.16 /27

c. 192.168.5.32 /27

d. 192.168.5.48 /27

e. 192.168.5.64 /27

Answer: c

To determine subnets and usable address ranges created by the 27-bit subnet

mask we perform the following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask). In this question, we have a 27-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as:11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000

The interesting octet is the forth octet, because the forth octet (i.e. 11100000) is

the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary.

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask.

A 27-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as: 255.255.255.224 Since the forth octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting octet is 224.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the

interesting octet from 256.

Block Size = 256 – 224 = 32

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting

octet, starting at 0.

Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as:

192.168.5.0 /27

We then count by the block size (of 32) in the interesting octet (the forth octet in

this question) to determine the remaining subnets:

192.168.5.32 /27

192.168.5.64 /27

192.168.5.96 /27

192.168.5.128 /27

192.168.5.160 /27

192.168.5.192 /27

192.168.5.224 /27

Now that we have all of our subnets identified, we can determine the subnet in

which the IP address of 192.168.5.55 resides.

Since the usable range of IP addresses for the 192.168.5.32 /27 network is

192.168.5.33 – 192.168.5.62 (because 192.168.5.32 is the network address, and

192.168.5.63 is the directed broadcast address), and since 192.168.5.55 is in

that range, the subnet to which 192.168.5.55 /27 belongs is:

192.168.5.32 /27

Question #9

You are working for a company that will be using the 192.168.1.0 /24 private IP

address space for IP addressing inside their organization.

They have multiple geographical locations and want to carve up the 192.168.1.0

/24 address space into subnets. Their largest subnet will need 13 hosts.

What subnet mask should you use to accommodate at least 13 hosts per subnet,

while maximizing the number of subnets that can be created?

a. 255.255.255.248

b. 255.255.255.224

c. 255.255.255.252

d. 255.255.255.192

e. 255.255.255.240

Answer: e

We can determine the maximum number of hosts allowed in a subnet by raising

the number 2 to the power of the number of host bits and then subtracting 2. So,

the formula looks like this:

Maximum Number of Hosts per Subnet = 2h – 2, where h is the number of

host bits.

Why are we subtracting two? Well, there are two IP addresses in the subnet that

cannot be assigned. These addresses are: (1) the network address, where all of

the host bits are set to a 0 and (2) the directed broadcast address, where all of

the host bits are set to a 1.

In the actual exam, if you are given scratch paper or access to a note taking

application, you might want to write out a table such as the following for your

reference:

1 Host Bit: 21 – 2 = 0

2 Host Bits: 22 – 2 = 2

3 Host Bits: 23 – 2 = 6

4 Host Bits: 24 – 2 = 14

5 Host Bits: 25 – 2 = 30

6 Host Bits: 26 – 2 = 62

7 Host Bits: 27 – 2 = 126

8 Host Bits: 28 – 2 = 254

In this question, we’re asked to determine a subnet mask that accommodates at

least 13 hosts per subnet. By looking at the reference table we created, we can

see that 4 host bits (which support 14 hosts) would work, while 3 host bits (which

supports only 6 hosts) would not be enough.

So, we need a subnet with 4 host bits, which are enough host bits to meet the

design goal, but not more than we need. Using more host bits than we need

would violate the requirement to maximize the number of subnets.

A subnet mask with 4 host bits has 28 network bits (i.e. 32 – 4 = 28), and

therefore a 28-bit subnet mask. A 28-bit subnet mask can be written as:

255.255.255.240

Question #10

A customer is using a Class C network of 192.168.10.0 subnetted with a 28-bit

subnet mask. How many assignable addresses are available in each of the

subnets?

a. 32

b. 16

c. 30

d. 8

e. 14

Answer: e

An IPv4 address contains a total of 32 bits. Since, in this question, we have 28

subnet bits, the number of host bits is 4 (i.e. 32 – 28 = 4). The number of

assignable IP addresses in a subnet can be calculated as follows:

Number of Assignable IP Addresses = 2h – 2, where h is the number of host

bits.Therefore, in this question, each subnet has 14 assignable IP addresses:

Number of Assignable IP Addresses = 2^4 – 2 = 16 – 2 = 14

Question #11

An IP address of 192.168.0.100 /27 belongs to which of the following subnets?

a. 192.168.0.92

b. 192.168.0.128

c. 192.168.0.64

d. 192.168.0.96

e. 192.168.0.32

Answer: d

To determine the subnets created by the 27-bit subnet mask we perform the

following steps:

Step #1: Identify the interesting octet (i.e. the octet that contains the first zero in

the binary subnet mask).

In this question, we have a 19-bit subnet mask, which is written in binary as:

11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000

The interesting octet is the forth octet, because the forth octet (i.e. 11100000) is

the first octet to contain a 0 in the binary.

Step #2: Identify the decimal value in the interesting octet of the subnet mask.

A 27-bit subnet mask can be written in dotted decimal notation as:

255.255.255.224

Since the forth octet is the interesting octet, the decimal value in the interesting

octet is 224.

Step #3: Determine the block size by subtracting the decimal value of the

interesting octet from 256.

Block Size = 256 – 224 = 32

Step #4: Determine the subnets by counting by the block size in the interesting

octet, starting at 0.

Placing a zero in the first interesting octet identifies the first subnet as:

192.168.0.0 /27

We then count by the block size (of 32) in the interesting octet (the forth octet in

this question) to determine the remaining subnets:

192.168.0.32 /27

192.168.0.64 /27

192.168.0.96 /27

192.168.0.128 /27

192.168.0.160 /27

192.168.0.192 /27

192.168.0.224 /27

Step #5: Identify the subnet address of the IP address 192.168.0.100 /27.Looking through the subnets created by the 27-bit subnet mask reveals that the IP address of 192.168.0.100 resides in the 192.168.0.96 subnet.

Question #12

What subnet mask should be used to subnet the 192.168.10.0 network to support the number of subnets and IP addresses per subnet shown in the following topology?

a. 255.255.255.0

b. 255.255.255.128

c. 255.255.255.192

d. 255.255.255.224

e. 255.255.255.240

Answer: c

To meet the design requirements, four subnets must be created, and each

subnet must accommodate a maximum of 50 IP addresses. We can begin by creating a listing of how many subnets are created from different numbers of borrowed bits, using the formula:

Number of Subnets Created = 2n, where n is the number of borrowed bits

1 borrowed bits => 2 subnets

2 borrowed bits => 4 subnets

3 borrowed bits => 8 subnets

4 borrowed bits => 16 subnets

5 borrowed bits => 32 subnets

6 borrowed bits => 64 subnets

7 borrowed bits => 128 subnets

From this, we can see we need at least 2 borrowed bits to accommodate 4 subnets. However, we need to make sure the subnet will accommodate 50 IP

addresses.  To determine this, we can use the formula:

Number of IP Addresses = 2h – 2, where h is the number of host bits

If we have 2 borrowed bits (i.e. the minimum number of borrowed bits required

for 4 subnets), we have 6 host bits (i.e. 8 – 2 = 6). From the above formula, we

can determine the number of IP addresses supported by 6 host bits.

Number of IP Addresses = 26 – 2 = 62

Since 6 host bits meet our requirement of at least 50 IP addresses per subnet,

we can use a 26-bit subnet mask (i.e. 2 bits added to the Class C default mask

(also known as the natural mask) of 24 bits). A 26-bit subnet mask can be written

as: 255.255.255.192

Network Devices

Network devices are physical hardware components that link computers, printers, fax machines, and other electronic devices to a network. These devices quickly, securely, and accurately transfer data over the same or separate networks. Network equipment can be either intra or inter-networked. 

A NIC card or RJ45 connection is an installed device, whereas a router, switch, or another network device is a network component. 

Modem

A computer may send and receive data through phone or cable lines with the help of a modem. In contrast to a telephone line or cable wire, which can only carry analog data, the data saved on a computer is digital.

The modem’s primary job is to transform digital signals between analog and digital and vice versa. Combining a modulator and a demodulator creates a modem. When digital data is sent by the computer, the modulator turns it into analog data. When analog data signals are received by the computer, they are demodulated into digital data.

Types of Modem

There are several different types of modems depending on the direction of data transmission:

Simplex − Using a simplex modem, data can only be transferred from a digital device to a network (modulator) or from a network to a digital device in one direction (demodulator).

Half duplex − While a half-duplex modem can transport data in both ways, it can do so only in one direction at a time.

Full duplex − A full duplex modem may simultaneously send data in both directions.

Hub:

Hubs work in the physical layer of the OSI model. A hub is a device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices and making them act as a single network segment. It has multiple inputs and output ports in which a signal introduced at the input of any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming port.

A hub can be used with both digital and analog data. Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing function, they send the data packets to all the connected devices.

Demonstrate the functionality of a hub using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT)

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer

Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Create a New Project

Go to File > New to start a new project.

3. Add Devices to Your Workspace

From the bottom device toolbar, choose the following devices:

Hub: You can find this under the Network Devices tab > Hubs.

PCs: Select End Devices > PC.

Drag and drop one Hub and at least two PCs onto the workspace.

4. Connect the Devices

Choose the Connections icon (it looks like a lightning bolt).

Select the Copper Straight-Through cable.

5. Click on the first PC, choose the FastEthernet0 interface.

Connect it to one of the ports on the Hub.

Repeat this process for the second PC, connecting it to a different port on the Hub.

6. Configure IP Addresses for the PCs

Click on the first PC and then on the Desktop tab.

Select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address and subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

Repeat this for the second PC, assigning a different IP address but the same subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

7. Verify Connectivity

On the first PC, go to Command Prompt under the Desktop tab.

Type ping 192.168.1.2 and press Enter.

You should see replies from the second PC if everything is set up correctly.

8. Observe the Hub’s Operation

To observe how the hub works, click on the Hub.

Go to the Physical tab and then select Power to turn it on.

Note that a hub is a Layer 1 device and doesn’t have advanced configuration options. It simply forwards packets to all connected devices.

9. Use Simulation Mode for Detailed Analysis

Switch to Simulation Mode by clicking the Simulation tab.

Set up a simple Ping simulation by adding an Event to the network.

Observe how the hub broadcasts the frame to all ports and how only the intended recipient responds.

10. Verify Frames Being Broadcast

In Simulation Mode, add the PCs and use the Add Simple PDU tool to send a message from one PC to another.

Watch how the hub sends the frame out of all ports, but only the destination PC will respond.

11. Save Your Project

Go to File > Save and choose a location to save your Packet Tracer file for future reference.

Repeater:

A repeater operates at the physical layer of the OSI model.A Repeater connects two segments of a network cable.Sometimes it regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segment.If the signal becomes weak, it can copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength.It is a 2-port device.

Demonstrate the functionality of a Repeater using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT):

A repeater is used to extend the range of a network by amplifying signals, so this exercise will help you understand how a repeater works to maintain connectivity over greater distances.

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer

Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Create a New Project

Go to File > New to start a new project.

3. Add Devices to Your Workspace

From the bottom device toolbar, choose the following devices:

Repeater: You can find this under the Network Devices tab > Hubs.

PCs: Select End Devices > PC.

Drag and drop one Repeater and at least two PCs onto the workspace.

4. Connect the Devices

Choose the Connections icon (it looks like a lightning bolt).

Select the Copper Straight-Through cable.

Connect one PC to the first port of the Repeater.

Connect the Repeater’s second port to another PC.

Note: Ensure the distance between the PCs is sufficient to show the benefit of the repeater. You may want to place the repeater in between to visually represent its function.

5. Configure IP Addresses for the PCs

Click on the first PC and then on the Desktop tab.

Select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address and subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

Repeat this for the second PC, assigning a different IP address but the same subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

6. Verify Connectivity

On the first PC, go to Command Prompt under the Desktop tab.

Type ping 192.168.1.2 and press Enter.

You should see replies from the second PC if everything is set up correctly.

7. Observe the Repeater’s Operation

To observe the repeater's operation, you can use the Physical tab to view the repeater's connections and ensure it’s powered on.

The repeater doesn’t have advanced settings; it simply forwards electrical signals to extend the network range.

8. Use Simulation Mode for Detailed Analysis

Switch to Simulation Mode by clicking the Simulation tab.

Set up a simple Ping simulation by adding an Event to the network.

Observe how the signal from one PC travels through the repeater to the other PC.

9. Verify Signal Transmission

In Simulation Mode, add the PCs and use the Add Simple PDU tool to send a message from one PC to another.

Watch how the repeater amplifies the signal to ensure it reaches the other PC.

10. Save Your Project

Go to File > Save and choose a location to save your Packet Tracer file for future reference.

Switch

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model. They may operate in the data link layer and network layer; a device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.

A Switch can check the errors before forwarding the data, which makes it more efficient and improves its performance. A switch is the better version of a hub. It is a multi-port bridge device.

Demonstrate the functionality of a switch using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT): Fundamental role of a switch in forwarding traffic efficiently within a network. Here’s a step-by-step guide to illustrate the operation of a switch:

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer

Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Create a New Project

Go to File > New to start a new project.

3. Add Devices to Your Workspace

From the bottom device toolbar, choose the following devices:

Switch: You can find this under the Network Devices tab > Switches.

PCs: Select End Devices > PC.

Drag and drop one Switch and at least two PCs onto the workspace.

4. Connect the Devices

Choose the Connections icon (it looks like a lightning bolt).

Select the Copper Straight-Through cable.

Connect one PC to one of the ports on the Switch.

Connect the second PC to another port on the Switch.

Repeat this process if you want to add more PCs to the Switch.

5. Configure IP Addresses for the PCs

Click on the first PC and then on the Desktop tab.

Select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address and subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

Repeat this for the second PC, assigning a different IP address but within the same subnet (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

6. Verify Connectivity

On the first PC, go to Command Prompt under the Desktop tab.

Type ping 192.168.1.2 and press Enter.

You should see replies from the second PC if everything is set up correctly.

7. Observe the Switch’s Operation

To observe the switch’s operation, click on the Switch.

Go to the CLI tab to access the command-line interface.

Use basic commands like show mac address-table to view the MAC address table of the switch.

Example CLI Commands:

show mac address-table: Displays the MAC address table, showing which MAC addresses are associated with which switch ports.

commands to show MAC address using CLI

Switch>enable

Switch#show mac-address-table 

          Mac Address Table

-------------------------------------------

Vlan    Mac Address       Type        Ports

----    -----------       --------    -----

   1    0000.0cc0.6a7d    DYNAMIC     Fa0/2

   1    0002.4ab0.2786    DYNAMIC     Fa0/1

   1    0004.9ab0.85da    DYNAMIC     Fa0/3

8. Use Simulation Mode for Detailed Analysis

Switch to Simulation Mode by clicking the Simulation tab.

Add a simple Ping simulation by using the Add Simple PDU tool to send a message from one PC to another.

Observe how the switch learns the MAC addresses and forwards the frame only to the port where the destination PC is connected.

9. Verify Frame Forwarding

In Simulation Mode, observe how the switch uses its MAC address table to forward the frame from one PC to another.

Note that the switch only sends the frame to the port associated with the destination MAC address, unlike a hub, which would broadcast the frame to all ports.

10. Save Your Project

Go to File > Save and choose a location to save your Packet Tracer file for future reference.

Bridge

A bridge operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. It can read only the outmost hardware address of the packet but cannot read the IP address. It reads the outmost section of the data packet to tell where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments. It does not send all the packets. So, a bridge can be programmed to reject packets from a particular network.

Note:

1. Bridge is a layer 2 device which is used to connect the same protocols used for  2 different  LANS

2. Router is a layer 3 device which is used to connect the Different protocols used for 2 different  LANS

Steps to Observe MAC Address Functionality:

Setup a Simple Network:

Create a basic network topology with devices such as PCs, switches (bridges), and routers.

For example, connect two PCs (PC1 and PC2) to a switch.

Configure IP Addresses:

Assign IP addresses to the PCs to ensure they can communicate with each other.

E.g., assign 192.168.1.1/24 to PC1 and 192.168.1.2/24 to PC2.

Access the Switch (Bridge):

Click on the switch in the Packet Tracer workspace to open the switch's configuration menu.

Access the CLI (Command Line Interface) of the switch.

Send Traffic Between PCs:

Use one of the PCs (e.g., PC1) to send a ping to the other PC (e.g., PC2).

This will generate traffic that the switch needs to forward, prompting it to learn the MAC addresses.

View the MAC Address Table:

On the switch's CLI, enter the command show mac address-table or show mac-address-table.

This command will display the MAC addresses that the switch has learned and the corresponding ports.

Switch> enable

Switch# show mac-address-table

Analyze the MAC Address Table:

The MAC address table will show you the MAC addresses of the devices connected to the switch and the port numbers they are associated with.

Each entry in the MAC address table indicates that the switch has learned the MAC address of a device on a specific port.

Router

Routers are small physical devices that operate at the network layer to join multiple networks together.A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.

Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.

A Router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination code.

Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets, each with a different subnetwork address. The subnet addresses recorded in a router do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections.

Demonstrate the functionality of a Router using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT):

1: Setup the Network Topology

Open Cisco Packet Tracer.

Add Devices to the Workspace:

Drag and drop the following devices onto the workspace:

1 Router (e.g., Router0)

2 Switches (e.g., Switch0, Switch1)

4 PCs (e.g., PC0, PC1, PC2, PC3)

Connect Devices:

Use the Copper Straight-Through cable to connect:

PC0 to Switch0

PC1 to Switch0

PC2 to Switch1

PC3 to Switch1

Use the Copper Straight-Through cable to connect:

Switch0 to Router0 on the GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface

Switch1 to Router0 on the GigabitEthernet 0/1 interface

2: Configure IP Addresses on PCs

Configure PC0 and PC1 (Subnet 1):

Click on PC0, go to the Desktop tab, and select IP Configuration.

Assign the following IP details:

IP Address: 192.168.1.2

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Default Gateway: 192.168.1.1

Repeat the same for PC1, but with an IP Address of 192.168.1.3.

Configure PC2 and PC3 (Subnet 2):

Click on PC2, go to the Desktop tab, and select IP Configuration.

Assign the following IP details:

IP Address: 192.168.2.2

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Default Gateway: 192.168.2.1

Repeat the same for PC3, but with an IP Address of 192.168.2.3.

3: Configure IP Addresses on Router Interfaces

Access Router CLI:

Click on the Router0 and go to the CLI tab.

Configure Router Interfaces:

Enter the following commands to configure the IP addresses for the router’s interfaces:

shell

Copy code

Router> enable

Router# configure terminal

Router(config)# interface gigabitEthernet 0/0

Router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Router(config-if)# exit

Router(config)# interface gigabitEthernet 0/1

Router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Router(config-if)# exit

Router(config)# end

Router# write memory

This sets up the router to be in the same subnet as the PCs on their respective networks.

4: Test Connectivity Between PCs

Ping within the Same Subnet:

Go to PC0, open the Command Prompt, and type the following command:

shell

Copy code

ping 192.168.1.3

This tests connectivity between PC0 and PC1 on the same subnet.

Ping Across Different Subnets:

From PC0, ping PC2 using the command:

shell

Copy code

ping 192.168.2.2

If successful, this shows that the router is correctly routing packets between different subnets.

Two types of routers −

Static routers – Static routers are configured manually and route data packets based on the information in a router table.

Dynamic routers – Dynamic routers use adaptive routing which is a process where a router can forward data by a different route

Gateway

A gateway is an internetworking capable of joining together two networks that use different base protocols.

A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, hardware, or a combination of both, depending on the types of protocols they support.

A network gateway can operate at any level of the OSI model. A broadband router typically serves as the network gateway, although ordinary computers can also be configured to perform equivalent functions.

A gateway is a router or proxy server that routes between networks.

A gateway belongs to the same subnet to which the PC belongs.

Steps to Configure and Use a Gateway in Cisco Packet Tracer

Create a Basic Network Topology:

Place at least one PC, one switch, and one router on the workspace.

Connect the PC to the switch using a copper straight-through cable.

Connect the switch to the router using another copper straight-through cable.

Assign IP Addresses:

Assign an IP address to the PC.

Click on the PC, go to the Desktop tab, and select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.2) and a subnet mask (e.g., 255.255.255.0).

Set the default gateway to the router's IP address on the same network (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

Configure the router's interface:

Click on the router, go to the CLI or Config tab.

Select the interface connected to the switch (e.g., GigabitEthernet0/0).

Assign an IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) and subnet mask (255.255.255.0) to the router's interface.

Enable the interface with the no shutdown command if using the CLI.

Example configuration for the router:

Router> enable

Router# configure terminal

Router(config)# interface GigabitEthernet0/0

Router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Configure the PC's Default Gateway:

The PC's default gateway should be the IP address of the router's interface connected to the switch (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

This tells the PC where to send packets destined for outside the local network.

Test Connectivity:

You can test connectivity by pinging the router's IP address from the PC.

Open the command prompt on the PC (Desktop > Command Prompt) and type:

ping 192.168.1.1

If everything is configured correctly, you should receive replies, indicating that the PC can communicate with the router (gateway).

Routing Beyond the Gateway (Optional):

If your router is connected to another network (e.g., a simulated internet), you can configure routing on the router to forward traffic to that network.

For example, you can set up a static route or use a dynamic routing protocol to enable communication between different networks.

Networking Basic Commands

color

help color

ipconfig

ipconfig/all

nslookup

1. IPCONFIG

The IPCONFIG network command provides a comprehensive view of information regarding the IP address configuration of the device we are currently working on.

The IPConfig command also provides us with some variation in the primary command that targets specific system settings or data, which are:

IPConfig/all - Provides primary output with additional information about network adapters.

IPConfig/renew - Used to renew the system’s IP address.

IPConfig/release - Removes the system’s current IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt - ipconfig

2. NSLOOKUP

The NSLOOKUP command is used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues in the system. Using the nslookup command, we can access the information related to our system’s DNS server, i.e., domain name and IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt - nslookup

3. HOSTNAME

The HOSTNAME command displays the hostname of the system. The hostname command is much easier to use than going into the system settings to search for it.

Command to enter in Prompt - hostname

4. PING

The Ping command is one of the most widely used commands in the prompt tool, as it allows the user to check the connectivity of our system to another host.

This command sends four experimental packets to the destination host to check whether it receives them successfully, if so, then, we can communicate with the destination host. But in case the packets have not been received, that means, no communication can be established with the destination host.

Command to enter in Prompt - ping www.destination_host_name.com

5. TRACERT

The TRACERT command is used to trace the route during the transmission of the data packet over to the destination host and also provides us with the “hop” count during transmission.

Using the number of hops and the hop IP address, we can troubleshoot network issues and identify the point of the problem during the transmission of the data packet.

Command to enter in Prompt- tracert IP-address OR tracert www.destination_host_name.com

6. NETSTAT

The Netstat command as the name suggests displays an overview of all the network connections in the device. The table shows detail about the connection protocol, address, and the current state of the network.

Command to enter in Prompt - netstat

7. ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

The ARP command is used to access the mapping structure of IP addresses to the MAC address. This provides us with a better understanding of the transmission of packets in the network channel.

Command to enter in Prompt - arp

8.SYSTEMINFO

Using the SYSTEMINFO command, we can access the system’s hardware and software details, such as processor data, booting data, Windows version, etc.

Command to enter in Prompt - systeminfo

ARPANET

Network Topology:

Network topology is the layout of a network. It consists of two parts; physical and logical. The physical part describes the physical layout of a network while the logical part describes how the data flows in that network. Both, physical and logical parts are also known as the physical topology and the logical topology.

Physical part (Topology) + Logical part (Topology) = Network Topology

History of Computer Networking:

A computer network is a group of computers that has the potential to transmit, receive and exchange voice, data, and video traffic. 

The network and data communication are the essential factors to rise information technology in the world as technology's advancement is on the system, including the gadgets. ARPANET began the networking long ago.

In 1957, when SPUTNIK Satellite was launched by Russia. An agency named ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY (ARPA) was started by American, and its first satellite was launched within 18 months after establishment. Then they used ARPANET to share the information on another computer. America's Dr. LIED LIEDER has this all responsibility. Then, ARPANET came to India in 1969, and its name changed from Indian to NETWORK.

For the United States Department of Defense, the funding of the design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was began by ARPA. In 1969, the network began to develop on the basis of the developed designs in the 1960s. The below table contains a complete history of computer networking:

Year	Event
1961	In this year, Leonard Kleinrock proposed the earliest computer networks, which was the idea of ARPANET.
1965	In 1965, Donald Davies coined the term "packet" to describe how to send data between computers on a network.
1969	Although In 1966, the development of ARPANET began, officially started ARPANET in 1969. It was considered one of the first computer networks in which first two nodes, UCLA and SRI (Stanford Research Institute) were connected, and to use packet switching. To provide and define information about network protocols, procedures, and computer communications, the first RFC surfaced as a document in April 1969.
1969	On 29 August 1969, the first IMP and network switch were sent to UCLA. On ARPANET, the first data transmission was sent by using it.
1970	NCP, stands for NetWare Core Protocol, released by Steve Crocker and a team at UCLA for use with NetWare.
1971	In 1971, the first e-mail was sent to across a network to other users by Ray Tomlinson.
1973	While working at Xerox PARC, Robert Metcalfe developed the Ethernet in 1973. In the same year, ARPA deployed the first international network connection, known as SATNET. In 1973, VoIP technology and capabilities were officially introduced, which made a VoIP call. However, until 1995, the software was not available for users that could make VoIP calls.
1974	In this year, the use of first router was began, but they were not considered true IP routers.
1976	Originally called a gateway, Ginny Strazisar develop the first true IP router.
1978	In 1978, the TCP/IP protocol was developed and invented by Bob Kahn for networks; it was developed with help from Vint Cerf.
1981	In the United States, between IBM mainframe systems, BITNET was created in 1981 as a network. The U.S. National Science Foundation developed the CSNET (Computer Science Network) in the same year 1981.
1983	For using TCP/IP, ARPANET finished the transition. The first DNS implement by Jon Postel and Paul Mockapetris in 1983.
1986	This is the year in which a backbone for ARPANET, the National Science Foundation Network was came online, which finally took the place of ARPANET in 1990s. In the same year, with the original BITNET, BITNET II was introduced to deal with bandwidth issues.
1988	In 1988, the first T1 backbone was included with ARPANET. AT&T, Lucent, and NCR introduced the WaveLAN network technology in 1988. In 1988, for the first time, the explanation of network firewall technology was published. In the same year, Digital Equipment Corporation developed it. This paper had the detail about the first firewall, known as a packet filter firewall.
1990	The first network switch was developed and introduced by a U.S. network hardware company named Kalpana in 1990.
1996	In 1996, an IPv6 was introduced as an improvement over IPv4, as well as embedded encryption, improved routing.
1997	In June 1997, the 802.11 standards, containing transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps, for Wi-Fi were introduced.
1999	The 802.11a standard, containing transmission speeds up to 25 Mbps to use the 5 GHz band, was officially made in 1999. Another standard 802.11b was available to use for the public in mid-1999, which offered transmission speeds up to 11 Mbps. In September 1999, for use with 802.11b, the WEP encryption protocol was released.
2003	802.11g devices, contained transmission speeds up to 20 Mbps, were available to the public in January 2003. In the same year, for use with 802.11g, the WPA encryption protocol is released.
2004	In 2004, as a replacement for WPA, the WPA2 encryption protocol was introduced. By 2006, WPA2 certification was compulsory for all Wi-Fi devices.
2009	The 802.11n standard can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths and offers higher transfer speeds over 802.11a and 802.11g. Officially, it was made in 2009.
2018	In January 2018, WPA3 encryption was released by the Wi-Fi Alliance, which comprises security enhancements over WPA2.

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

 

3GPP 3G Partnership Project Protocols

6LoWPAN IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks

ACID Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability of transactions

ADAS Advance Driver Assistance Systems

ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter

ADFG Acrylic Data Flow Graph

ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AES Advanced Encryption 128- or 192- or 256- bit key length Algorithm

AES-CCM AES with CCM

API Application Programming Interface 

AQI Air Quality Index

ARP Address Resolution Protocol

ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange

ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuit

ATM Automated Teller Machine 

AWS Amazon Web Services

BB BeagleBone

BI Business Intelligence

BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor

xx List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

Bootpc Bootstrap Protocol Client

Bootps Bootstrap Protocol Server

BP Business Process

BT BR Bluetooth Basic data rate in 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 or 4.0 device

BT EDR Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate

BT LE Bluetooth Low Energy

CA Certification Authority

CAN Controller Area Network bus

CAP Consistency, Availability and Partitions

CBC Cryptographic Block Cipher for block ciphers with a block length of 

128 bits

CCD Charge Coupled Device 

CCM Counter with CBC-MAC

CEP Complex Event Processing

CGA Cryptographically Generated Addresses 

CIDR Classless Inter-Domain Routing 

CIMD Computer Interface to Message Distribution

CoAP Constrained Application Protocol

CORE Constrained RESTful Environment

CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check

CRM Customer Relations Management

CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

CUP Connected Universe Platform

CVS Concurrent Versions System

CWI Cloud Web Interface

DAG Directed Acrylic Graph

DB Database

DBMS Database Management System

DBP Distributed Business Process

DFG Data Flow Graph

DHCP Dynamic Host Control Protocol 

DLL Dynamically Linked Library

DM Device Management

DNS Domain Name System

DODAG Destination Oriented Directed Acrylic Graph

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi

DoS Denial-of-Service

DSL Digital Subscriber Line

DSP Digital Signal Processor

DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 

DTLS Datagram Transport Layer Security

DWI Device Web Interface

ECU Electronic Control Unit

EPC Electronic Product Code

ESP Event Stream Processing

ETL Extract, Transform and Load 

FC Functional Component 

FG Functional Group

FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 

FOTA Firmware Over-The-Air

FPT Phototransistor

FTP File Transfer Protocol

GPIO General Purpose Input-Output

GPRS General Packet Radio Service

GSM Global System for Mobiles

HAB Home Automation Bus

HAN Home Area Network

HDFS Hadoop File System

HLR Home Location Register 

HSPA High Speed Packet Access

HTML HyperText Markup Language

HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTPS HTTP over TLS/SSL

I/O Input-Output

I2C Inter-Integrated Circuit 

IaaS Infrastructure-as-a-Service

IANA Internet Assigned Number Authority 

ICCM Internet Connected Car Maintenance 

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol

ICSP In-Circuit Serial Programming 

xxii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

ICT Information and Communications Technology

IDE Integrated Development Environment

IdM Identity Management

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission for Standards

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force

IFTTT If This Then That service

IIC Industrial Internet Consortium 

IIoT Industrial IoT

IM Instant Messaging

IO Input-Output

IoT Internet of Things

IP Internet Protocol

IPSec IP Security Protocol

IPSP Internet Protocol Support Profile 

IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4

IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6 

iq Information/Query

IR-LED Infrared Light Emitting Diode

ISDN Integrated Services Data Network 

ISM Industrial, Scientific and Medical

ISO International Organization for Standardization

JAR Java Archive

JID Jabber ID 

JMS Java Message Service

JSON Java Script Object Notation

KPI Key Performance Indicators

LAN Local Area Network (of Computers)

LED Light Emitting Diode

LIDAR Light + Radar, also Laser Imaging, Detection and Ranging

LIN Local Interconnect Network Bus

LLN Low Power Lossy Networks

LoRaWAN Low-power and Range WAN

LPWAN Low-power WAN

LTE Long Term Evolution

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxiii

LWM2M Lightweight M2M Protocol

LWT Last Will and Testament on failure of a session, for example, between 

a client and broker or server

M2M Machine-to-Machine

MAC Media Access Control 

mDNS Multicast Domain Name System

MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensor 

MFLOPS Million Floating Point Operations Per Second 

MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

MINA Multi-Hop Infrastructure Network Architecture 

MIPS Million Instructions Per Second 

MMC Multimedia Card

MO Mobile Origin 

MOSFET Metal-oxide Field Effect Transistor

MOST Media Oriented System Transport

Mote Mobile Terminal

MPLS Multiprotocol Label Switching

MPP Massively Parallel Processing

MQ Message Queue

MQTT Message Queue Telemetry Transport protocol

MS Mobile Station

MSISDN Mobile Station ISDN Number

MT Mobile Terminal 

MTC Machine Type Communication

MTU Maximum Transmission Unit 

MUT Multi-User Chat

NAN Neighbourhood Area Network

ND Neighbour Discovery

NDP Network Discovery Protocol 

NFC Near Field Communication

NFV Network Function Virtualization

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

OASIS Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information 

Standards

ODBC Open Database Connectivity

xxiv List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

OID Object Identifier

OLAP On-Line Analytical Processing 

OLTP On-Line Transactions Processing 

OMA Open Mobile Alliance

ONS Object Name Service

ORCHID Overlay Routable Cryptographic Hash Identifier

OS Operating System

OSGi Open Services Gateway initiative

OWASP Open Web Application Security Project

P2P Point-to-Point 

PaaS platform-as-a-service

PAN Personal Area Network

PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect

PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

PDU Protocol Data Unit for a layer

PII Personally Identifiable Information 

PKI Public Key Infrastructure

PPP Point-to-Point Protocol 

PS Participatory Sensing

PSK Pre-Shared Key

pubsub Publication by a service and subscription by end point or client or 

server

PWM Pulse Width Modulator

QoS Quality of Service

QR code Quick Response code

RAM Random Access Memory 

RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

RDMS Relational Database Management System

REST Representational State Transfer

RF Radio Frequency of MHz

RFC IETF Request for Comments standardisation document

RFD Reduced Function Device

RFIC RF Integrated Circuits

RFID Radio Frequency Identification

ROLL Routes Over the Low power and Lossy network

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxv

ROM Read Only Memory 

RPC Remote Procedure Call

RPi Raspberry Pi 

RPK Random Pair-wise Keys, Raw-Public-key

RPL IPv6 Routing Protocol for LLNs (Low Power Lossy Networks)

RPM Revolution per Minute

RPMP Re-Planning Manufacturing Process

RTC Real Time Clock

RTOS Real Time Operating System

Rx Receiver

RxD Receiver Data line

SaaS Software as a Service

SASL Simple Authentication and Security Layer

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 

SCL Serial Clock

SCOVARS Supply Chain Order Verification, Automated Reordering and 

Shipping

SD Service Discovery 

SDA Serial Data

SDK Software Development Kit

SHA Secure Hash Algorithm

SIM Subscriber Identity Module (generally a card) in mobile

SLA Service Level Agreement

SMPP Short Message Peer to Peer

SMS Short Message Service 

SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol 

SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol

SPI Serial Peripheral Interface Bus

SPINS Security Protocols in Network of Sensors

SQL Structured Query Language

SS7 Signaling Service Protocol 

SSID Service Set Identifier

SSL Secure Scoket Layer

STP Spanning Tree Protocol 

SWE Sensor Web Enablement services

xxvi List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

TCCICDD Tracking of Customer Carrying Internet Connected Digital Devices

TCP Transmission Control Protocol

TCUP TCS Connected Universe Platform

TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol

TLS Transport Layer Security

TLS Transport Layer Security

TLV Tag Length Value

TSDB Time Series Database 

TTP Trusted Third Party 

Tx Transmitter

TxD Transmitter Data line

UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter

UCP/UMI Universal Computer Interface Protocol/Machine Interface

UDP User Datagram Protocol

UI User Interface

UPC Universal Product Code

URI Universal Resource Identifier

URL Universal Resource Locator

USB Universal Serial Bus

V2I Vehicle to Infrastructure Communication 

VLAN Virtual Local Area Network 

W3C World Wide Web Consortium

WAN Wide Area Network

WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy 

WIDL Web Interface Definition Language

Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity 

WLAN Wireless 802.11 Local Area Network

WPA Wireless Protected Access

WSAPI WebSocket Application Programming Interface

WSN Wireless Sensor Node/Network

WWAN Wireless Wide Area Network

XAAS Everything-as-a-Service 

xep XMPP Extension Protocol

XHTML EXtensible HyperText Markup Language

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii

XML EXtensible Markup Language

XMPP EXtensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

XMPP-IoT XMPP xeps for the IoT/M2M 

XSF XMPP Standards Foundation