Network Devices

Network devices are physical hardware components that link computers, printers, fax machines, and other electronic devices to a network. These devices quickly, securely, and accurately transfer data over the same or separate networks. Network equipment can be either intra or inter-networked. 

A NIC card or RJ45 connection is an installed device, whereas a router, switch, or another network device is a network component. 

Modem

A computer may send and receive data through phone or cable lines with the help of a modem. In contrast to a telephone line or cable wire, which can only carry analog data, the data saved on a computer is digital.

The modem’s primary job is to transform digital signals between analog and digital and vice versa. Combining a modulator and a demodulator creates a modem. When digital data is sent by the computer, the modulator turns it into analog data. When analog data signals are received by the computer, they are demodulated into digital data.

Types of Modem

There are several different types of modems depending on the direction of data transmission:

Simplex − Using a simplex modem, data can only be transferred from a digital device to a network (modulator) or from a network to a digital device in one direction (demodulator).

Half duplex − While a half-duplex modem can transport data in both ways, it can do so only in one direction at a time.

Full duplex − A full duplex modem may simultaneously send data in both directions.

Hub:

Hubs work in the physical layer of the OSI model. A hub is a device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices and making them act as a single network segment. It has multiple inputs and output ports in which a signal introduced at the input of any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming port.

A hub can be used with both digital and analog data. Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing function, they send the data packets to all the connected devices.

Demonstrate the functionality of a hub using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT)

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer

Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Create a New Project

Go to File > New to start a new project.

3. Add Devices to Your Workspace

From the bottom device toolbar, choose the following devices:

Hub: You can find this under the Network Devices tab > Hubs.

PCs: Select End Devices > PC.

Drag and drop one Hub and at least two PCs onto the workspace.

4. Connect the Devices

Choose the Connections icon (it looks like a lightning bolt).

Select the Copper Straight-Through cable.

5. Click on the first PC, choose the FastEthernet0 interface.

Connect it to one of the ports on the Hub.

Repeat this process for the second PC, connecting it to a different port on the Hub.

6. Configure IP Addresses for the PCs

Click on the first PC and then on the Desktop tab.

Select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address and subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

Repeat this for the second PC, assigning a different IP address but the same subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

7. Verify Connectivity

On the first PC, go to Command Prompt under the Desktop tab.

Type ping 192.168.1.2 and press Enter.

You should see replies from the second PC if everything is set up correctly.

8. Observe the Hub’s Operation

To observe how the hub works, click on the Hub.

Go to the Physical tab and then select Power to turn it on.

Note that a hub is a Layer 1 device and doesn’t have advanced configuration options. It simply forwards packets to all connected devices.

9. Use Simulation Mode for Detailed Analysis

Switch to Simulation Mode by clicking the Simulation tab.

Set up a simple Ping simulation by adding an Event to the network.

Observe how the hub broadcasts the frame to all ports and how only the intended recipient responds.

10. Verify Frames Being Broadcast

In Simulation Mode, add the PCs and use the Add Simple PDU tool to send a message from one PC to another.

Watch how the hub sends the frame out of all ports, but only the destination PC will respond.

11. Save Your Project

Go to File > Save and choose a location to save your Packet Tracer file for future reference.

Repeater:

A repeater operates at the physical layer of the OSI model.A Repeater connects two segments of a network cable.Sometimes it regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segment.If the signal becomes weak, it can copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength.It is a 2-port device.

Demonstrate the functionality of a Repeater using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT):

A repeater is used to extend the range of a network by amplifying signals, so this exercise will help you understand how a repeater works to maintain connectivity over greater distances.

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer

Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Create a New Project

Go to File > New to start a new project.

3. Add Devices to Your Workspace

From the bottom device toolbar, choose the following devices:

Repeater: You can find this under the Network Devices tab > Hubs.

PCs: Select End Devices > PC.

Drag and drop one Repeater and at least two PCs onto the workspace.

4. Connect the Devices

Choose the Connections icon (it looks like a lightning bolt).

Select the Copper Straight-Through cable.

Connect one PC to the first port of the Repeater.

Connect the Repeater’s second port to another PC.

Note: Ensure the distance between the PCs is sufficient to show the benefit of the repeater. You may want to place the repeater in between to visually represent its function.

5. Configure IP Addresses for the PCs

Click on the first PC and then on the Desktop tab.

Select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address and subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

Repeat this for the second PC, assigning a different IP address but the same subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

6. Verify Connectivity

On the first PC, go to Command Prompt under the Desktop tab.

Type ping 192.168.1.2 and press Enter.

You should see replies from the second PC if everything is set up correctly.

7. Observe the Repeater’s Operation

To observe the repeater's operation, you can use the Physical tab to view the repeater's connections and ensure it’s powered on.

The repeater doesn’t have advanced settings; it simply forwards electrical signals to extend the network range.

8. Use Simulation Mode for Detailed Analysis

Switch to Simulation Mode by clicking the Simulation tab.

Set up a simple Ping simulation by adding an Event to the network.

Observe how the signal from one PC travels through the repeater to the other PC.

9. Verify Signal Transmission

In Simulation Mode, add the PCs and use the Add Simple PDU tool to send a message from one PC to another.

Watch how the repeater amplifies the signal to ensure it reaches the other PC.

10. Save Your Project

Go to File > Save and choose a location to save your Packet Tracer file for future reference.

Switch

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model. They may operate in the data link layer and network layer; a device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.

A Switch can check the errors before forwarding the data, which makes it more efficient and improves its performance. A switch is the better version of a hub. It is a multi-port bridge device.

Demonstrate the functionality of a switch using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT): Fundamental role of a switch in forwarding traffic efficiently within a network. Here’s a step-by-step guide to illustrate the operation of a switch:

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer

Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Create a New Project

Go to File > New to start a new project.

3. Add Devices to Your Workspace

From the bottom device toolbar, choose the following devices:

Switch: You can find this under the Network Devices tab > Switches.

PCs: Select End Devices > PC.

Drag and drop one Switch and at least two PCs onto the workspace.

4. Connect the Devices

Choose the Connections icon (it looks like a lightning bolt).

Select the Copper Straight-Through cable.

Connect one PC to one of the ports on the Switch.

Connect the second PC to another port on the Switch.

Repeat this process if you want to add more PCs to the Switch.

5. Configure IP Addresses for the PCs

Click on the first PC and then on the Desktop tab.

Select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address and subnet mask (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

Repeat this for the second PC, assigning a different IP address but within the same subnet (e.g., IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0).

6. Verify Connectivity

On the first PC, go to Command Prompt under the Desktop tab.

Type ping 192.168.1.2 and press Enter.

You should see replies from the second PC if everything is set up correctly.

7. Observe the Switch’s Operation

To observe the switch’s operation, click on the Switch.

Go to the CLI tab to access the command-line interface.

Use basic commands like show mac address-table to view the MAC address table of the switch.

Example CLI Commands:

show mac address-table: Displays the MAC address table, showing which MAC addresses are associated with which switch ports.

commands to show MAC address using CLI

Switch>enable

Switch#show mac-address-table 

          Mac Address Table

-------------------------------------------

Vlan    Mac Address       Type        Ports

----    -----------       --------    -----

   1    0000.0cc0.6a7d    DYNAMIC     Fa0/2

   1    0002.4ab0.2786    DYNAMIC     Fa0/1

   1    0004.9ab0.85da    DYNAMIC     Fa0/3

8. Use Simulation Mode for Detailed Analysis

Switch to Simulation Mode by clicking the Simulation tab.

Add a simple Ping simulation by using the Add Simple PDU tool to send a message from one PC to another.

Observe how the switch learns the MAC addresses and forwards the frame only to the port where the destination PC is connected.

9. Verify Frame Forwarding

In Simulation Mode, observe how the switch uses its MAC address table to forward the frame from one PC to another.

Note that the switch only sends the frame to the port associated with the destination MAC address, unlike a hub, which would broadcast the frame to all ports.

10. Save Your Project

Go to File > Save and choose a location to save your Packet Tracer file for future reference.

Bridge

A bridge operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. It can read only the outmost hardware address of the packet but cannot read the IP address. It reads the outmost section of the data packet to tell where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments. It does not send all the packets. So, a bridge can be programmed to reject packets from a particular network.

Note:

1. Bridge is a layer 2 device which is used to connect the same protocols used for  2 different  LANS

2. Router is a layer 3 device which is used to connect the Different protocols used for 2 different  LANS

Steps to Observe MAC Address Functionality:

Setup a Simple Network:

Create a basic network topology with devices such as PCs, switches (bridges), and routers.

For example, connect two PCs (PC1 and PC2) to a switch.

Configure IP Addresses:

Assign IP addresses to the PCs to ensure they can communicate with each other.

E.g., assign 192.168.1.1/24 to PC1 and 192.168.1.2/24 to PC2.

Access the Switch (Bridge):

Click on the switch in the Packet Tracer workspace to open the switch's configuration menu.

Access the CLI (Command Line Interface) of the switch.

Send Traffic Between PCs:

Use one of the PCs (e.g., PC1) to send a ping to the other PC (e.g., PC2).

This will generate traffic that the switch needs to forward, prompting it to learn the MAC addresses.

View the MAC Address Table:

On the switch's CLI, enter the command show mac address-table or show mac-address-table.

This command will display the MAC addresses that the switch has learned and the corresponding ports.

Switch> enable

Switch# show mac-address-table

Analyze the MAC Address Table:

The MAC address table will show you the MAC addresses of the devices connected to the switch and the port numbers they are associated with.

Each entry in the MAC address table indicates that the switch has learned the MAC address of a device on a specific port.

Router

Routers are small physical devices that operate at the network layer to join multiple networks together.A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.

Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.

A Router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination code.

Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets, each with a different subnetwork address. The subnet addresses recorded in a router do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections.

Demonstrate the functionality of a Router using Cisco Packet Tracer (CPT):

1: Setup the Network Topology

Open Cisco Packet Tracer.

Add Devices to the Workspace:

Drag and drop the following devices onto the workspace:

1 Router (e.g., Router0)

2 Switches (e.g., Switch0, Switch1)

4 PCs (e.g., PC0, PC1, PC2, PC3)

Connect Devices:

Use the Copper Straight-Through cable to connect:

PC0 to Switch0

PC1 to Switch0

PC2 to Switch1

PC3 to Switch1

Use the Copper Straight-Through cable to connect:

Switch0 to Router0 on the GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface

Switch1 to Router0 on the GigabitEthernet 0/1 interface

2: Configure IP Addresses on PCs

Configure PC0 and PC1 (Subnet 1):

Click on PC0, go to the Desktop tab, and select IP Configuration.

Assign the following IP details:

IP Address: 192.168.1.2

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Default Gateway: 192.168.1.1

Repeat the same for PC1, but with an IP Address of 192.168.1.3.

Configure PC2 and PC3 (Subnet 2):

Click on PC2, go to the Desktop tab, and select IP Configuration.

Assign the following IP details:

IP Address: 192.168.2.2

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Default Gateway: 192.168.2.1

Repeat the same for PC3, but with an IP Address of 192.168.2.3.

3: Configure IP Addresses on Router Interfaces

Access Router CLI:

Click on the Router0 and go to the CLI tab.

Configure Router Interfaces:

Enter the following commands to configure the IP addresses for the router’s interfaces:

shell

Copy code

Router> enable

Router# configure terminal

Router(config)# interface gigabitEthernet 0/0

Router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Router(config-if)# exit

Router(config)# interface gigabitEthernet 0/1

Router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Router(config-if)# exit

Router(config)# end

Router# write memory

This sets up the router to be in the same subnet as the PCs on their respective networks.

4: Test Connectivity Between PCs

Ping within the Same Subnet:

Go to PC0, open the Command Prompt, and type the following command:

shell

Copy code

ping 192.168.1.3

This tests connectivity between PC0 and PC1 on the same subnet.

Ping Across Different Subnets:

From PC0, ping PC2 using the command:

shell

Copy code

ping 192.168.2.2

If successful, this shows that the router is correctly routing packets between different subnets.

Two types of routers −

Static routers – Static routers are configured manually and route data packets based on the information in a router table.

Dynamic routers – Dynamic routers use adaptive routing which is a process where a router can forward data by a different route

Gateway

A gateway is an internetworking capable of joining together two networks that use different base protocols.

A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, hardware, or a combination of both, depending on the types of protocols they support.

A network gateway can operate at any level of the OSI model. A broadband router typically serves as the network gateway, although ordinary computers can also be configured to perform equivalent functions.

A gateway is a router or proxy server that routes between networks.

A gateway belongs to the same subnet to which the PC belongs.

Steps to Configure and Use a Gateway in Cisco Packet Tracer

Create a Basic Network Topology:

Place at least one PC, one switch, and one router on the workspace.

Connect the PC to the switch using a copper straight-through cable.

Connect the switch to the router using another copper straight-through cable.

Assign IP Addresses:

Assign an IP address to the PC.

Click on the PC, go to the Desktop tab, and select IP Configuration.

Assign an IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.2) and a subnet mask (e.g., 255.255.255.0).

Set the default gateway to the router's IP address on the same network (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

Configure the router's interface:

Click on the router, go to the CLI or Config tab.

Select the interface connected to the switch (e.g., GigabitEthernet0/0).

Assign an IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) and subnet mask (255.255.255.0) to the router's interface.

Enable the interface with the no shutdown command if using the CLI.

Example configuration for the router:

Router> enable

Router# configure terminal

Router(config)# interface GigabitEthernet0/0

Router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Configure the PC's Default Gateway:

The PC's default gateway should be the IP address of the router's interface connected to the switch (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

This tells the PC where to send packets destined for outside the local network.

Test Connectivity:

You can test connectivity by pinging the router's IP address from the PC.

Open the command prompt on the PC (Desktop > Command Prompt) and type:

ping 192.168.1.1

If everything is configured correctly, you should receive replies, indicating that the PC can communicate with the router (gateway).

Routing Beyond the Gateway (Optional):

If your router is connected to another network (e.g., a simulated internet), you can configure routing on the router to forward traffic to that network.

For example, you can set up a static route or use a dynamic routing protocol to enable communication between different networks.

Networking Basic Commands

color

help color

ipconfig

ipconfig/all

nslookup

1. IPCONFIG

The IPCONFIG network command provides a comprehensive view of information regarding the IP address configuration of the device we are currently working on.

The IPConfig command also provides us with some variation in the primary command that targets specific system settings or data, which are:

IPConfig/all - Provides primary output with additional information about network adapters.

IPConfig/renew - Used to renew the system’s IP address.

IPConfig/release - Removes the system’s current IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt - ipconfig

2. NSLOOKUP

The NSLOOKUP command is used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues in the system. Using the nslookup command, we can access the information related to our system’s DNS server, i.e., domain name and IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt - nslookup

3. HOSTNAME

The HOSTNAME command displays the hostname of the system. The hostname command is much easier to use than going into the system settings to search for it.

Command to enter in Prompt - hostname

4. PING

The Ping command is one of the most widely used commands in the prompt tool, as it allows the user to check the connectivity of our system to another host.

This command sends four experimental packets to the destination host to check whether it receives them successfully, if so, then, we can communicate with the destination host. But in case the packets have not been received, that means, no communication can be established with the destination host.

Command to enter in Prompt - ping www.destination_host_name.com

5. TRACERT

The TRACERT command is used to trace the route during the transmission of the data packet over to the destination host and also provides us with the “hop” count during transmission.

Using the number of hops and the hop IP address, we can troubleshoot network issues and identify the point of the problem during the transmission of the data packet.

Command to enter in Prompt- tracert IP-address OR tracert www.destination_host_name.com

6. NETSTAT

The Netstat command as the name suggests displays an overview of all the network connections in the device. The table shows detail about the connection protocol, address, and the current state of the network.

Command to enter in Prompt - netstat

7. ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

The ARP command is used to access the mapping structure of IP addresses to the MAC address. This provides us with a better understanding of the transmission of packets in the network channel.

Command to enter in Prompt - arp

8.SYSTEMINFO

Using the SYSTEMINFO command, we can access the system’s hardware and software details, such as processor data, booting data, Windows version, etc.

Command to enter in Prompt - systeminfo

ARPANET

Network Topology:

Network topology is the layout of a network. It consists of two parts; physical and logical. The physical part describes the physical layout of a network while the logical part describes how the data flows in that network. Both, physical and logical parts are also known as the physical topology and the logical topology.

Physical part (Topology) + Logical part (Topology) = Network Topology

History of Computer Networking:

A computer network is a group of computers that has the potential to transmit, receive and exchange voice, data, and video traffic. 

The network and data communication are the essential factors to rise information technology in the world as technology's advancement is on the system, including the gadgets. ARPANET began the networking long ago.

In 1957, when SPUTNIK Satellite was launched by Russia. An agency named ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY (ARPA) was started by American, and its first satellite was launched within 18 months after establishment. Then they used ARPANET to share the information on another computer. America's Dr. LIED LIEDER has this all responsibility. Then, ARPANET came to India in 1969, and its name changed from Indian to NETWORK.

For the United States Department of Defense, the funding of the design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was began by ARPA. In 1969, the network began to develop on the basis of the developed designs in the 1960s. The below table contains a complete history of computer networking:

Year	Event
1961	In this year, Leonard Kleinrock proposed the earliest computer networks, which was the idea of ARPANET.
1965	In 1965, Donald Davies coined the term "packet" to describe how to send data between computers on a network.
1969	Although In 1966, the development of ARPANET began, officially started ARPANET in 1969. It was considered one of the first computer networks in which first two nodes, UCLA and SRI (Stanford Research Institute) were connected, and to use packet switching. To provide and define information about network protocols, procedures, and computer communications, the first RFC surfaced as a document in April 1969.
1969	On 29 August 1969, the first IMP and network switch were sent to UCLA. On ARPANET, the first data transmission was sent by using it.
1970	NCP, stands for NetWare Core Protocol, released by Steve Crocker and a team at UCLA for use with NetWare.
1971	In 1971, the first e-mail was sent to across a network to other users by Ray Tomlinson.
1973	While working at Xerox PARC, Robert Metcalfe developed the Ethernet in 1973. In the same year, ARPA deployed the first international network connection, known as SATNET. In 1973, VoIP technology and capabilities were officially introduced, which made a VoIP call. However, until 1995, the software was not available for users that could make VoIP calls.
1974	In this year, the use of first router was began, but they were not considered true IP routers.
1976	Originally called a gateway, Ginny Strazisar develop the first true IP router.
1978	In 1978, the TCP/IP protocol was developed and invented by Bob Kahn for networks; it was developed with help from Vint Cerf.
1981	In the United States, between IBM mainframe systems, BITNET was created in 1981 as a network. The U.S. National Science Foundation developed the CSNET (Computer Science Network) in the same year 1981.
1983	For using TCP/IP, ARPANET finished the transition. The first DNS implement by Jon Postel and Paul Mockapetris in 1983.
1986	This is the year in which a backbone for ARPANET, the National Science Foundation Network was came online, which finally took the place of ARPANET in 1990s. In the same year, with the original BITNET, BITNET II was introduced to deal with bandwidth issues.
1988	In 1988, the first T1 backbone was included with ARPANET. AT&T, Lucent, and NCR introduced the WaveLAN network technology in 1988. In 1988, for the first time, the explanation of network firewall technology was published. In the same year, Digital Equipment Corporation developed it. This paper had the detail about the first firewall, known as a packet filter firewall.
1990	The first network switch was developed and introduced by a U.S. network hardware company named Kalpana in 1990.
1996	In 1996, an IPv6 was introduced as an improvement over IPv4, as well as embedded encryption, improved routing.
1997	In June 1997, the 802.11 standards, containing transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps, for Wi-Fi were introduced.
1999	The 802.11a standard, containing transmission speeds up to 25 Mbps to use the 5 GHz band, was officially made in 1999. Another standard 802.11b was available to use for the public in mid-1999, which offered transmission speeds up to 11 Mbps. In September 1999, for use with 802.11b, the WEP encryption protocol was released.
2003	802.11g devices, contained transmission speeds up to 20 Mbps, were available to the public in January 2003. In the same year, for use with 802.11g, the WPA encryption protocol is released.
2004	In 2004, as a replacement for WPA, the WPA2 encryption protocol was introduced. By 2006, WPA2 certification was compulsory for all Wi-Fi devices.
2009	The 802.11n standard can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths and offers higher transfer speeds over 802.11a and 802.11g. Officially, it was made in 2009.
2018	In January 2018, WPA3 encryption was released by the Wi-Fi Alliance, which comprises security enhancements over WPA2.

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

 

3GPP 3G Partnership Project Protocols

6LoWPAN IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks

ACID Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability of transactions

ADAS Advance Driver Assistance Systems

ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter

ADFG Acrylic Data Flow Graph

ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AES Advanced Encryption 128- or 192- or 256- bit key length Algorithm

AES-CCM AES with CCM

API Application Programming Interface 

AQI Air Quality Index

ARP Address Resolution Protocol

ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange

ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuit

ATM Automated Teller Machine 

AWS Amazon Web Services

BB BeagleBone

BI Business Intelligence

BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor

xx List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

Bootpc Bootstrap Protocol Client

Bootps Bootstrap Protocol Server

BP Business Process

BT BR Bluetooth Basic data rate in 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 or 4.0 device

BT EDR Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate

BT LE Bluetooth Low Energy

CA Certification Authority

CAN Controller Area Network bus

CAP Consistency, Availability and Partitions

CBC Cryptographic Block Cipher for block ciphers with a block length of 

128 bits

CCD Charge Coupled Device 

CCM Counter with CBC-MAC

CEP Complex Event Processing

CGA Cryptographically Generated Addresses 

CIDR Classless Inter-Domain Routing 

CIMD Computer Interface to Message Distribution

CoAP Constrained Application Protocol

CORE Constrained RESTful Environment

CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check

CRM Customer Relations Management

CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

CUP Connected Universe Platform

CVS Concurrent Versions System

CWI Cloud Web Interface

DAG Directed Acrylic Graph

DB Database

DBMS Database Management System

DBP Distributed Business Process

DFG Data Flow Graph

DHCP Dynamic Host Control Protocol 

DLL Dynamically Linked Library

DM Device Management

DNS Domain Name System

DODAG Destination Oriented Directed Acrylic Graph

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi

DoS Denial-of-Service

DSL Digital Subscriber Line

DSP Digital Signal Processor

DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 

DTLS Datagram Transport Layer Security

DWI Device Web Interface

ECU Electronic Control Unit

EPC Electronic Product Code

ESP Event Stream Processing

ETL Extract, Transform and Load 

FC Functional Component 

FG Functional Group

FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 

FOTA Firmware Over-The-Air

FPT Phototransistor

FTP File Transfer Protocol

GPIO General Purpose Input-Output

GPRS General Packet Radio Service

GSM Global System for Mobiles

HAB Home Automation Bus

HAN Home Area Network

HDFS Hadoop File System

HLR Home Location Register 

HSPA High Speed Packet Access

HTML HyperText Markup Language

HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTPS HTTP over TLS/SSL

I/O Input-Output

I2C Inter-Integrated Circuit 

IaaS Infrastructure-as-a-Service

IANA Internet Assigned Number Authority 

ICCM Internet Connected Car Maintenance 

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol

ICSP In-Circuit Serial Programming 

xxii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

ICT Information and Communications Technology

IDE Integrated Development Environment

IdM Identity Management

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission for Standards

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force

IFTTT If This Then That service

IIC Industrial Internet Consortium 

IIoT Industrial IoT

IM Instant Messaging

IO Input-Output

IoT Internet of Things

IP Internet Protocol

IPSec IP Security Protocol

IPSP Internet Protocol Support Profile 

IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4

IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6 

iq Information/Query

IR-LED Infrared Light Emitting Diode

ISDN Integrated Services Data Network 

ISM Industrial, Scientific and Medical

ISO International Organization for Standardization

JAR Java Archive

JID Jabber ID 

JMS Java Message Service

JSON Java Script Object Notation

KPI Key Performance Indicators

LAN Local Area Network (of Computers)

LED Light Emitting Diode

LIDAR Light + Radar, also Laser Imaging, Detection and Ranging

LIN Local Interconnect Network Bus

LLN Low Power Lossy Networks

LoRaWAN Low-power and Range WAN

LPWAN Low-power WAN

LTE Long Term Evolution

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxiii

LWM2M Lightweight M2M Protocol

LWT Last Will and Testament on failure of a session, for example, between 

a client and broker or server

M2M Machine-to-Machine

MAC Media Access Control 

mDNS Multicast Domain Name System

MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensor 

MFLOPS Million Floating Point Operations Per Second 

MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

MINA Multi-Hop Infrastructure Network Architecture 

MIPS Million Instructions Per Second 

MMC Multimedia Card

MO Mobile Origin 

MOSFET Metal-oxide Field Effect Transistor

MOST Media Oriented System Transport

Mote Mobile Terminal

MPLS Multiprotocol Label Switching

MPP Massively Parallel Processing

MQ Message Queue

MQTT Message Queue Telemetry Transport protocol

MS Mobile Station

MSISDN Mobile Station ISDN Number

MT Mobile Terminal 

MTC Machine Type Communication

MTU Maximum Transmission Unit 

MUT Multi-User Chat

NAN Neighbourhood Area Network

ND Neighbour Discovery

NDP Network Discovery Protocol 

NFC Near Field Communication

NFV Network Function Virtualization

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

OASIS Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information 

Standards

ODBC Open Database Connectivity

xxiv List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

OID Object Identifier

OLAP On-Line Analytical Processing 

OLTP On-Line Transactions Processing 

OMA Open Mobile Alliance

ONS Object Name Service

ORCHID Overlay Routable Cryptographic Hash Identifier

OS Operating System

OSGi Open Services Gateway initiative

OWASP Open Web Application Security Project

P2P Point-to-Point 

PaaS platform-as-a-service

PAN Personal Area Network

PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect

PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

PDU Protocol Data Unit for a layer

PII Personally Identifiable Information 

PKI Public Key Infrastructure

PPP Point-to-Point Protocol 

PS Participatory Sensing

PSK Pre-Shared Key

pubsub Publication by a service and subscription by end point or client or 

server

PWM Pulse Width Modulator

QoS Quality of Service

QR code Quick Response code

RAM Random Access Memory 

RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

RDMS Relational Database Management System

REST Representational State Transfer

RF Radio Frequency of MHz

RFC IETF Request for Comments standardisation document

RFD Reduced Function Device

RFIC RF Integrated Circuits

RFID Radio Frequency Identification

ROLL Routes Over the Low power and Lossy network

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxv

ROM Read Only Memory 

RPC Remote Procedure Call

RPi Raspberry Pi 

RPK Random Pair-wise Keys, Raw-Public-key

RPL IPv6 Routing Protocol for LLNs (Low Power Lossy Networks)

RPM Revolution per Minute

RPMP Re-Planning Manufacturing Process

RTC Real Time Clock

RTOS Real Time Operating System

Rx Receiver

RxD Receiver Data line

SaaS Software as a Service

SASL Simple Authentication and Security Layer

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 

SCL Serial Clock

SCOVARS Supply Chain Order Verification, Automated Reordering and 

Shipping

SD Service Discovery 

SDA Serial Data

SDK Software Development Kit

SHA Secure Hash Algorithm

SIM Subscriber Identity Module (generally a card) in mobile

SLA Service Level Agreement

SMPP Short Message Peer to Peer

SMS Short Message Service 

SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol 

SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol

SPI Serial Peripheral Interface Bus

SPINS Security Protocols in Network of Sensors

SQL Structured Query Language

SS7 Signaling Service Protocol 

SSID Service Set Identifier

SSL Secure Scoket Layer

STP Spanning Tree Protocol 

SWE Sensor Web Enablement services

xxvi List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

TCCICDD Tracking of Customer Carrying Internet Connected Digital Devices

TCP Transmission Control Protocol

TCUP TCS Connected Universe Platform

TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol

TLS Transport Layer Security

TLS Transport Layer Security

TLV Tag Length Value

TSDB Time Series Database 

TTP Trusted Third Party 

Tx Transmitter

TxD Transmitter Data line

UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter

UCP/UMI Universal Computer Interface Protocol/Machine Interface

UDP User Datagram Protocol

UI User Interface

UPC Universal Product Code

URI Universal Resource Identifier

URL Universal Resource Locator

USB Universal Serial Bus

V2I Vehicle to Infrastructure Communication 

VLAN Virtual Local Area Network 

W3C World Wide Web Consortium

WAN Wide Area Network

WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy 

WIDL Web Interface Definition Language

Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity 

WLAN Wireless 802.11 Local Area Network

WPA Wireless Protected Access

WSAPI WebSocket Application Programming Interface

WSN Wireless Sensor Node/Network

WWAN Wireless Wide Area Network

XAAS Everything-as-a-Service 

xep XMPP Extension Protocol

XHTML EXtensible HyperText Markup Language

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii

XML EXtensible Markup Language

XMPP EXtensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

XMPP-IoT XMPP xeps for the IoT/M2M 

XSF XMPP Standards Foundation

ACN short questions : HTPS vs FTP vs SMTP , IPV6

 Differences : HTPS vs FTP vs SMTP

 

List of features of IPv4:

Address Structure:

An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits divided into eight 16-bits blocks. Each block is then converted into 4-digit Hexadecimal numbers separated by colon symbols.

For example, given below is a 128 bit IPv6 address represented in binary format and divided into eight 16-bits blocks:

0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000 1101111111100001 0000000001100011 0000000000000000 0000000000000000         1111111011111011

Each block is then converted into Hexadecimal and separated by ‘:’ symbol:

2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

1. Larger Address Space

The IPV6 uses four times more bits for addressing a device on the internet as compared to IPV4, and the space provided by it is 3.4 x 10 ^ 38 devices; the address space provided by IPV6 may fulfill the requirement to allocate addresses all over the world means it can be allocated to everywhere on the earth in a square meter, this the main feature of the IPV6.

2. Simplified Header

The header of the IPV6 is twice bigger than the header provided by IPV4 on the other hand, the address provided by it is 4× more than IPV4, IPV6 header is not complex but easy to process while in IPV4, the header is complex, so by simplifying in IPV6 we need to move all the information from the header of it to the end of its header.

3. End-to-end Connectivity

The end-to-end connectivity feature in internet protocol, as of now every system has an IP address which is to be unique it can cross the internet without translating other components, it is fully implemented on the internet each host can access the other host directly, but there may have some restrictions like firewall, and policies of the organization may restrict.

4. Auto-configuration

The auto-configuration is the process to verify uniqueness on a link; it also determines the information that should be auto-configured, it supports stateful configuration mode to keep track of each assignment as well as it also supports the stateless auto-configuration in which there is no need to configure manually because it automatically generates the IPV6 addresses.

5. Faster Routing or Forwarding

The information which is present at the first part of the header is enough to make routing decisions as we know this is the simplified header feature as we have seen above, and due to the information present at header the IPV6 can make routing decisions faster, in this, we can say that IPV6 is faster in routing.

6. IPSec

This is an optional feature provided by IPV6 to give security of IPSec type, which is more secure than IPV4 and IPSec is used at the network or packet processing layer to secure the network.

7. Aggregation

The aggregation is another feature of IPV6, which allows using a single prefix for the entire network, which is easy and flexible to promote efficient and scalable routing.

8. No Broadcast

The IPV6 uses multicast address instead of broadcast address because it does not support the broadcast address, by using multicast address it communicates with the multiple hosts, it also has anycast mode which is a new type of address, a network device sends a packet to a multicast address then the device broadcast the packet to all interfaces which are identified by the address.

9. Anycast Support

Anycast is the featuring provided by IPV6 that is the mode of packet routing; on the internet, by using the anycast mode, the same anycast IP address can assign multiple interfaces, we can say that this is the address we can assign to multiple interfaces or set of interfaces, in this way IPV6 support the anycast.

10. Mobility

This feature of IPV6 allows the host, like a mobile phone, to keep the device connected in different geographic areas by using the same IP address, the mobility in IPV6 can assign an IP address to the mobile node within its home network, and the mobile node of the home address is useful to reach their destination.

11. Enhanced Priority Support

This is another feature of the IPV6 to check the priority support that IPV4 provided the quality of services where it used 6 bits Differential Service Code Point that is DSCP, and 2 bits Explicit Congestion Notification that is ECN but that can be used only when there is an end-to-end devices support so the underlying network like source and destination may support to it.

12. Smooth Transition

The smooth transition is the transition technique in IPV6 which is upgraded from IPV4 based on the up-to-date IPV6 technique, by the feature of the large IP address in IPV6 allow to assign the same IP address globally so devices can send and receive data within the network, the router in it can forward the decisions quickly rather the header is less loaded, and another enhancement is that all routers in one path need to do recalculation for IPV6 packet instead of error detection which is handled by the data link layer.

13. Extensibility

Extensibility is the major advantage of the IPV6; it is extensible so that it can add more information in the options section, the IPV6 has a large size packet where the IPV4 has less than IPV6 so that IPV4 can support 40-byte options only, in this way of adding extension header after the IPV6 header IPV6 can easily be extended, and the size of its extension is mannered by the size of its packets.

Local & Global address:

Global Addressing: A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be unique in the scope of the network or internationally.

Local Addressing: The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCI.

Difference between Switch and Router:

Router	Switch
The main objective of router is to connect various networks simultaneously.	While the main objective of switch is to connect various devices simultaneously.
It works in network layer.	While it works in data link layer.
Router is used by LAN as well as MAN.	While switch is used by only LAN.
Through the router, data is sent in the form of packets.	While through switch data is sent in the form of  frame.
There is less collision taking place in the router.	While there is no collision taking place in full duplex switch.
Router is compatible with NAT.	While it is not compatible with NAT.
The types of routing are: Adaptive and Non-adaptive routing.	The types of switching are: Circuit, Packet,and Message Switching.